Longinus
is the conventional name of the author of the treatise On the Sublime, a work
which focuses on the effect of good writing. Longinus, sometimes referred to as
Pseudo-Longinus because his real name is unknown, was a Greek teacher of
rhetoric or a literary critic who may have lived in the 1st or 3rd century AD.
Longinus is known only for On the Sublime. Longinus was greatly influenced by
the large amount of traveling he completed in his youth. He journeyed to
countless cities such as Athens, Rome and Alexandria. While on these trips, he
attended lectures about philosophy, undoubtedly shaping his own beliefs. One of
Longinus’ favorite philosophers was Plato.
Authorship
of On the Sublime
The
author is unknown. In the reference manuscript (Parisinus Graecus 2036), the
heading reports “Dionysius or Longinus," an ascription by the medieval copyist that was misread as "by Dionysius
Longinus." When the manuscript was being prepared for printed publication,
the work was initially attributed to Cassius
Longinus (c. 213–273 AD). Since the correct translation includes the
possibility of an author named "Dionysius," some have attributed the
work to Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, a writer of the 1st century AD. There remains the
possibility that the work belongs to neither Cassius Longinus nor Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, but, rather, some unknown author writing under the Roman Empire, likely in the 1st century. The
error does imply that when the codex was written, the trails
of the real author were already lost. Neither author can be accepted as the
actual writer of the treatise. The former maintained ideas which are absolutely
opposite to those written in the treatise; about the latter, there are problems
with chronology.
Among
further names proposed, are Hermagoras (a rhetorician who lived in Rome during
the 1st century AD), Aelius Theon (author
of a work which had many ideas in common with those of On the Sublime),
and Pompeius Geminus (who was in epistolary conversation with Dionysius).
Dionysius
of Halicarnassus
Dionysius of
Halicarnassus wrote under Augustus, publishing a number of works.
Dionysius is generally dismissed as the potential author of On the Sublime,
since the writing officially attributed to Dionysius differs from the work On
the Sublime in style and thought.
Cassius
Longinus
Accredited
with writing a number of literary works, this disciple of Plotinus was "the most distinguished scholar
of his day." Cassius received his education at Alexandria and became a
teacher himself. First teaching at Athens, Cassius later moved to Asia Minor,
where he achieved the position of advisor to the queen of Palmyra, Zenobia.
Cassius is also a dubious possibility for author of the treatise, since it is
notable that no literature later than the 1st century AD is mentioned (the
latest is Cicero, dead in 43 BC), and the work is now
usually dated to the early 1st century AD. The work ends with a dissertation on
the decay of oratory, a typical subject of the period in which authors such as Tacitus, Petronius and Quintilian, who also dealt with the subject, were
still alive. Longinus he was the minister of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra.
He was executed by Aurelian, the Roman emperor who conquered Palmyra. The
reason for his execution in 273 AD, were on charges of conspiring against the
Roman state. This was most likely because of what Longinus had written for
Queen Zenobia of Palmyra while she was still in power. Longinus is reported to
have written answers for the Queen, which were used in response to Aurelian,
the man who would soon rise to power as the Roman emperor.
The
treatise On the Sublime
On
the Sublime is both a treatise
on aesthetics and a work of literary criticism. It is
written in an epistolary form and the final part, possibly dealing with public
speaking, has been lost.
The
treatise is dedicated to Posthumius Terentianus, a cultured Roman and public
figure, though little else is known of him. On the Sublime is a compendium
of literary exemplars, with about 50 authors spanning 1,000 years mentioned or
quoted. Along with the expected examples from Homer
and other figures of Greek culture, Longinus refers to a passage from Genesis, which is quite unusual for the 1st
century:
A
similar effect was achieved by the lawgiver of the Jews—no mean genius, for he
both understood and gave expression to the power of the divinity as it
deserved—when he wrote at the very beginning of his laws, and I quote his
words: "God said,"—what was it?—"Let there be light, and there
was. Let there be earth, and there was."
— On the Sublime 9.9
Given
his positive reference to Genesis, Longinus has been assumed to be either a
Hellenized Jew or readily familiar with the Jewish culture. As such, Longinus
emphasizes that, to be a truly great writer, authors must have "moral
excellence". In fact, critics speculate that Longinus avoided publication
in the ancient world "either by modesty or by prudential motives".
Moreover, Longinus stresses that transgressive writers are not necessarily shameless
fools, even if they take literary risks that seem "bold, lawless, and
original". As for social subjectivity, Longinus acknowledges that complete
liberty promotes spirit and hope; according to Longinus, "never did a
slave become an orator". On the other hand, too much luxury and wealth
leads to a decay in eloquence—eloquence being the goal of the sublime writer.
The
Sublime
Longinus
critically applauds and condemns certain literary works as examples of good or
bad styles of writing. Longinus ultimately promotes an "elevation of
style" and an essence of "simplicity". To quote this famous
author, "the first and most important source of sublimity [is] the power
of forming great conceptions." The concept of the sublime is generally accepted to refer to a style
of writing that elevates itself "above the ordinary". Finally,
Longinus sets out five sources of sublimity: "great thoughts, strong
emotions, certain figures of thought and speech, noble diction, and dignified
word arrangement".
The
effects of the Sublime are: loss of rationality, an alienation leading to
identification with the creative process of the artist and a deep emotion mixed
in pleasure and exaltation. An example of sublime (which the author quotes in
the work) is a poem by Sappho, the so-called Ode
to Jealousy, defined as a "Sublime ode". A writer's goal is not
so much to express empty feelings, but to arouse emotion in his audience.
In
the treatise, the author asserts that "the Sublime leads the listeners not
to persuasion, but to ecstasy: for what is wonderful always goes together with
a sense of dismay, and prevails over what is only convincing or delightful,
since persuasion, as a rule, is within everyone's grasp: whereas, the Sublime,
giving to speech an invincible power and [an invincible] strength, rises above
every listener".
According
to this statement, one could think that the sublime, for Longinus, was only a
moment of evasion from reality. But on the contrary, he thought that literature
could model a soul, and that a soul could pour itself out into a work of art.
In this way the treatise becomes not only a text of literary inquiry, but also
one of ethical dissertation, since the Sublime becomes the product of a great
soul (μεγαλοφροσύνης ἀπήχημα,
megalophrosunēs apēchēma). The sources of the Sublime are of two kinds:
inborn sources ("aspiration to vigorous concepts" and "strong
and enthusiastic passion") and acquirable sources (rhetorical devices,
choice of the right lexicon, and "dignified and high composition").
The
ethical aspect and attention to the "great soul" broaden the
dimension of the work; begun in order to disprove the arguments of a pamphlet
of literary criticism, it ends by creating a new idea within the entire
framework of aesthetics. The sublime, in fact, is a denominator of the
greatness of the one who approaches to it, both the author's and the viewer's
(or reader's). Between them an empathetic bond must arise. Then, the Sublime is
a mechanism of recognition (arising from the impact of the work of art) of the
greatness of a spirit, of the depth of an idea, of the power of speech. This
recognition has its roots in the belief that everyone is aware of the existence
of the Sublime, and that the striving towards greatness is rooted in human
nature. In the wake of these considerations, the literary genre and the
subject-matter chosen by the poet assume a minor importance for Longinus, who
affirms that "sublimity" might be found in any or every literary
work. He proves to be a very clever critic, for he excels the Apollodoreans by
speaking of the critic as a form of positive "channeling" of the Genius.
He passes beyond the rigid rules of the literary critics of his time, according
to which only a regular (or "second-rate", as Longinus says) style
could be defined as perfect.
On
the other hand he admires the boldness of the Genius, which always succeeds in
reaching the zenith, even if at the expense of forgivable lapses in style. Thus
among examples of the Sublime may be rated (not in any order) Homer,
the tragedians, Sappho, Plato,
even the Bible, and a playwright like Aristophanes (since the author maintained that
laughter is a jocose pathos—and therefore, "sublime", being "an
emotion of pleasure"). He admires Hellenistic poets like Apollonius of
Rhodes and Theocritus for their sophistication, but ranks them below authors of
the classical age because they did not take risks and fought shy of the
"brave disorder" without which one could not hope to attain the
sublime. "Would you prefer to be Homer or Apollonius?...
No sane person would give just one tragedy, the Oedipus Rex, in exchange for all Ion's dramas."
The
Sublime, moreover, does not manifest itself only in what is simply beautiful,
but also in what is sufficiently distressing to cause bewilderment (ἔκπληξις, ekplēxis),
wonder (τὸ
θαυμαστόν, to thaumaston) and even fear (φόβος, phobos).
It could be said that Helen of Troy may certainly have been the most beautiful
woman in the world, but she was never sublime in Greek literature: however Edmund Burke cites the scene of the old men
looking at Helen's "terrible" beauty on the ramparts of Troy—he
regards it as an instance of the beautiful, but his imagination is captured by
its sublimity. Hecuba in Euripides's The Trojan Women is certainly sublime when
she expresses her endless sorrow for the terrible destiny of her children.
The
decay of rhetoric
The
author speaks also about the decay of oratory, as arising not only from absence
of personal freedom but also from the corruption of morals, which together
destroy that high spirit which generates the Sublime. Thus the treatise is
clearly centred in the burning controversy which raged in the 1st century AD in
Latin literature. If Petronius pointed out
excess of rhetoric and the pompous, unnatural techniques of the schools of
eloquence as the causes of decay, Tacitus was nearer to Longinus in thinking that
the root of this decadence was the establishment of Princedom, or Empire,
which, though it brought stability and peace, also gave rise to censorship and
brought an end to freedom of speech. Thus oratory became merely an exercise in
style.
Misleading
translations and lost data
Translators
have been unable to clearly interpret the text, including the title itself. The
"sublime" in the title has been translated in various ways, to
include senses of elevation and excellent style. The word sublime, argues Rhys Roberts, is misleading,
since Longinus' objective broadly concerns "the essentials of a noble and
impressive style" than anything more narrow and specific. Moreover, about
one-third of the treatise is missing; Longinus' segment on similes, for
instance, has only a few words remaining. Matters are further complicated in
realizing that ancient writers, Longinus' contemporaries, do not quote or
mention the treatise in any way.
Limitations
of the writing
Despite
Longinus' critical acclaim, his writing is far from perfect. Longinus'
occasional enthusiasm becomes "carried away" and creates some
confusion as to the meaning of his text. Furthermore, 18th-century critic
Edward Burnaby Greene finds Longinus, at times, to be "too refined". Greene also claims that Longinus' focus on
hyperbolical descriptions is "particularly weak, and misapplied."
Occasionally, Longinus also falls into a sort of "tediousness" in
treating his subjects. The treatise is also limited in its concentration on
spiritual transcendence and lack of focus on the way in which language
structures determine the feelings and thoughts of writers. Finally, Longinus'
treatise is difficult to explain in an academic setting, given the difficulty
of the text and lack of "practical rules of a teachable kind."
Writing
style and rhetoric
Despite
its faults, the treatise remains critically successful because of its
"noble tone," "apt precepts," "judicious
attitude," and "historical interests". One of the reasons why it
is so unlikely that known ancient critics wrote On the Sublime is
because the treatise is composed so differently from any other literary work.
Since Longinus' rhetorical formula avoids dominating his work, the literature
remains "personal and fresh," unique in its originality. Longinus
rebels against the popular rhetoric of the time by implicitly attacking ancient
theory in its focus on a detailed criticism of words, metaphors, and figures.
More explicitly, in refusing to judge tropes as entities unto themselves,
Longinus promotes the appreciation of literary devices as they relate to
passages as a whole. Essentially, Longinus, rare for a critic of his time,
focuses more on "greatness of style" than "technical
rules." Despite his criticism of ancient texts, Longinus remains a
"master of candor and good-nature". Moreover, the author invents
striking images and metaphors, writing almost lyrically at times. In general,
Longinus appreciates, and makes use of, simple diction and bold images.
As
far as the language is concerned, the work is certainly an "unicum"
because it is a blend of expressions of the Hellenistic Koine Greek to which are added elevated
constructions, technical expressions, metaphors, classic and rare forms which
produce a literary pastiche at the borders of linguistic experimentation.
Influences
In
reading On the Sublime, critics have determined that the ancient
philosopher and writer Plato is a "great hero" to Longinus. Not only
does Longinus come to Plato's defense, but he also attempts to raise his
literary standing in opposition to current criticisms. Another influence on the
treatise can be found in Longinus' rhetorical figures, which draw from theories
by a 1st-century BC writer, Caecilius of Calacte.
Historical
criticism and use of On the Sublime
Ø
10th century - The
original treatise, before translation, is copied into a medieval manuscript and
attributed to "Dionysius or Longinus."
Ø
13th century - A
Byzantine rhetorician makes obscure references to what may be Longinus' text.
Ø
16th century - The
treatise is ignored by scholars until it is published by Francis Robortello
in Basel, in 1554, and Niccolò da Falgano, in 1560.
The original work is attributed to "Dionysius Longinus" and most
European countries receive translations of the treatise.
Ø
17th century -
Sublime effects become a desired end of much Baroque art and literature, and the rediscovered
work of "Longinus" goes through half a dozen editions in the 17th
century. It is Boileau's
1674 translation of the treatise into French that really starts its career in
the history of criticism. Despite its popularity, some critics claim that the
treatise was too "primitive" to be truly understood by a "too
civilized" 17th-century audience.
Ø
18th century - William Smith's
1739 translation of Longinus on the Sublime established the translator
and once more brought the work into prominence. Longinus' text reaches its
height in popularity. In England, critics esteem Longinus' principles of
composition and balance second only to Aristotle's Poetics. Edmund Burke's A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the
Sublime and Beautiful and Immanuel Kant's Critique of the
Power of Judgment owe a debt to Longinus' concept of the sublime, and the category passes into
intellectual discourse. As "Longinus" says, "The effect of elevated
language upon an audience is not persuasion but transport," a fitting
sentiment for Romantic thinkers and writers who reach beyond logic, to the
wellsprings of the Sublime. At the same time, the Romantics gain some contempt
for Longinus, given his association with the "rules" of classical
poets. Such contempt is ironic, given the widespread influence of Longinus on
the shaping of 18th-century criticism.
Ø
19th century - Early
in the 19th century, doubts arise to the authorship of the treatise. Thanks to
Italian scholar Amati, Cassius Longinus is no longer assumed to be the writer
of On the Sublime. Simultaneously, the critical popularity of Longinus'
work diminishes greatly; though the work is still in use by scholars, it is
rarely quoted. Despite the lack of public enthusiasm, editions and translations
of On the Sublime are published at the end of the century.
Ø
20th century -
Although the text is still little quoted, it maintains its status, apart from
Aristotle's Poetics, as "the most delightful of all the critical
works of classical antiquity." Also see Neil Hertz's
essay on Longinus in his book, The End of the Line. Hertz is in part
responding to Thomas
Weiskel's book The Romantic Sublime, probably the most
influential recent account of British and German Romantic attitudes towards the
Sublime of both Burke and Longinus. Laura Quinney treats the attractions grim
demystification in analyzes of Longinus, particularly Weiskel's. Jonathan
Culler has an appreciation of Hertz on Longinus in "The Hertzian
Sublime." Anne Carson and Louis Marin have occasion to discuss Longinus as
well and Harold Bloom and
William J. Kennedy have significant accounts of his work. William Carlos
Williams also uses three lines from the work as an epigraph to the
Prologue to Kora in
Hell.
German
film director Werner Herzog claims
to have an affinity with the work of Longinus, in a talk entitled "On the
Absolute, the Sublime and Ecstatic Truth", presented in Milan. Herzog says
that he thinks of Longinus as a good friend and considers that Longinus's
notions of illumination has a parallel in some moments in his films. He quotes
from Longinus: "For our soul is raised out of nature through the truly
sublime, sways with high spirits, and is filled with proud joy, as if itself
had created what it hears."
