Indian Aesthetics

The Natya Shastra is an ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music. It was written during the period between 200 BCE and 200 CE in classical India and is traditionally attributed to the Sage Bharata.

The earliest work of Indian aesthetics is Bharata’s “Natya Shastra.”  It consists of a few instructions to the actors about present plays.  In course of discussion, Bharatha remarks that the aim of presenting a play is to evoke Rasa.  Rasa is generally regarded as the cornerstone of Indian aesthetics, and according to Bharata, is the product of the combination of the Vibhavas, Anubhavas, and Vyabhicharibhavas.  It talks of artistically influencing the perspective of the audience by a performer/artist.

Vibhava, anubhava and vyabhichari bhava in combination with one another evokes / arouses / infuses the supreme delight which we call rasa or the aesthetic experience in the spectator.

Bharata's Natya Shastra mentions the 'Rasa Sutra' that forms the foundation of Indian Dramaturgy; a one line statement on the elements of arousing the aesthetic experience in the audience. One of the shortest, yet, the most convincing and complete formulation for evoking an emotional response in the spectator.

Bharata devotes the sixth chapter of his classical work Natya Shastra, to an in depth analysis of the concept of Rasa. It is in this chapter that we find the famous 'Rasa Sutra.' The awareness of the emotions has to be elicited in the minds of the spectator for them to relish it. The Rasa Sutra summarizes the factors in art construction that leads to relishing of the Rasa.

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 The word Rasa is derived from the root 'rasah' meaning sap or juice, taste, flavour, relish. The extract of a fruit is referred to as 'rasa,' which itself is the essence of it, the ultimate flavour of it. Bharata succinctly encapsulates the theory of Rasa in his most famous formula-like Rasa sutra thus:

Vibhava-anubhava-vyabhichari-samyogad rasa nispattih

Ø  Vibhavas (വിഭാവ) are the objective conditions producing an emotion.

·         Alambana vibhava – the characters with respect to whom the emotion is aroused.

o   Asraya

o   Vishaya

·         Uddipana (ഉദ്ദിപന) vibhava – the circumstances that inspire the emotion.

Ø  Anubhavas (അനുഭാവ) are the psycho-physical manifestation which a particular emotion makes upon characters.

Vyabhichari bhavas – (sanchari (സഞ്ചാരി) bhavas) are the various fleeting or temporary emotions which lie upon the dormant emotion.

Vibhava literally means the determinant, the cause or the 'karana.'  Alambana Vibhava refers to the main stimulating cause whereas Uddipana Vibhava refers to excitants that support the main stimulating factors in evoking an emotion.

Anubhava refers to the impact or the consequents of a determinant. This is the physical or the outward manifestation. The function of anubhava is to apprehend the emotion or the prevailing permanent psychological state i.e. Sthayi (സ്ഥായി) bhava.

Vyabhichari Bhava are transitory emotions and are also known as Sanchari Bhava. These transitory states help the permanent psychological states to mature into Rasa or the aesthetic delight in the spectator.

Thus, vibhava and anubhava have a cause and effect relationship. Vyabhichari or the transitory states of mind is again an impact due to some specific cause. The difference between anubhava and vyabhichari bhava is that the former is a physical reaction whereas the latter is a mental reaction or a psychological state.

A step further comes the result i.e. the awareness of the emotion in the minds of the spectator which Bharata calls Rasa Nispattih.

Even if we have all these factors of art construction in place, still we may be short of making the audience delighted. How we use these elements in art creation is the deciding factor for the success of a piece of artwork. Firstly, the artiste while using his / her imaginative or creative prowess to bring certain emotions into existence in the spectator has to follow the laws of causation in order to make the work of art realistic and convincing. Secondly, the artiste has to maintain the right proportion and harmonious expression of these construction factors for stirring emotion that will lead to aesthetic delight.

Bharata classifies the Rasa under eight categories (ashtarasa) and gives the corresponding Bhava which gives rise to the rasa. These are known as Sthayi Bhava or pervading stable emotion. They are rati(love), hasa(mirth), shoka(grief), krodha(anger), utsaha(heroism), bhaya(fear), jugupsa(disgust), and vismaya(wonder). The corresponding eight Rasa are sringara(amorous), hasya(humorous), karuna(pathetic), raudra(furious), vira(valorous), bhayanaka(horrific), bibhatsa(repugnant), and adbhuta(wondrous).

There are three types of Bhava, namely, Sthayi (eight types), Vyabhichari (thirty three), and Satvika (eight), totaling to forty-nine. The Satvika bhava are the physical manifestation of intense emotion. They are sthamba(petrification), sveda(perspiration), romancha(horripilation), svarabheda(voice change), vepathu(trembling), vaivarnya(facial colour change), asru(weeping), and pralaya(fainting). It is an amazing analysis of human emotions put in a nutshell !

Vibhava is the cause (karana), the main stimulating cause being termed as alambana vibhava (the determinant), and, the environmental factors that are additional causes termed as uddipana vibhava (excitant). Anubhava is the consequent physical reaction through action, word and facial expression that follows (anu), as the impact of the vibhava. The thirty-three vyabhichari bhava (also referred to as sanchari bhava in some editions), are transitory, fleeting emotions based on psychological states of the mind. Several such emotions follow one after the other, one replacing the other, strengthening the sthayi bhava at each stage, till finally the sthayibhava is established and there is 'Rasanubhava'. "Just as in music a procession of notes in certain combinations reveals a characteristic melodic whole or raga, similarly it seems that the representation of bhavas reveals rasa as an aesthetic whole.

Abhinava Gupta, the 11^th century aesthetician wrote an interpretation to Bharata’s natya shastra.  The discussion was based on two words Samyoga (conjunction) and rasa-nispatti (manifestation of rasa).  Rasa is based on the psychological theory that our personality is constituted of a few primary emotions which lie deep in the subconscious or unconscious level of our being.  These primary emotions are the amorous, the ludicrous, the pathetic, the heroic, the passionate, the fearful, the nauseating, and the wondrous.

Other aesthetic psychologists have in later times added to them the peaceful/intellectual, the devotional/filial.  These emotions are there in all, and so these are called the dominant emotions or sthayi bhavas.

Each emotion in its manifestation shows a composition of diverse sentiments which produce the appearance of a permanent flame.  The flames of diverse sentiments give expression to the permanent emotion.  No emotion is called Rasa unless it is aesthetically excited.  Rasa is an emotion excited by artistic circumstance.

In Sadharanikarana, the commentary of Abhinava Gupta on Rasa Theory, he points out that in the actual aesthetic experience, the mind of the spectator is liberated from the obstacles caused by the ego.  Thus transported from the realm of the personal and egoistic to that of the general and universal, we are capable of experiencing Nirvana or blissfulness.  In the aesthetic process, we are transported to a trans-personal level.  This is a process of de-individualization or universalization.  The Indian Aestheticians consider this process as Sadharanikarana.  Here one may draw a parallel with catharsis, as described by Aristole.

Samkuka explains the enlightenment of aesthetic emotion through Bhavakatva and Bhojakatva.  A proper aesthetic creation generates in us a new spiritual enlightenment which gives us enjoyment.

Bhavakatva is the power of universalization (sadharanikaran) by virtue of which vibhavas, sthayi bhavas, etc. lose their individuality in people who are endowed with imaginations.

Bhojakatva is the quality that is responsible for the enjoyment of this generalized sthayi bhava by the spectator

In Kavya Kautuka, the work of Bhatta Tauta on Rasa, says that a dramatic presentation is not a mere physical occurrence.  In witnessing a play, we forget the actual perceptual experience of the individuals on the stage.  The protagonist stands midway between the pure ‘actuality’ and the pure ‘ideality.’  This, together with all the scenic association and music produces an experience which vibrates with exhilaration.  The past impressions, memories, associations, etc. becomes connected with the present experience.  As a result, a new experience is created and this provides new types of pleasures and pains.  This is technically known as rasasvadana, camatkara, and carvana.

Universalization of poetic art (alaukika/camatcara) – On the stage, the actor who plays the role of Rama appears to the audience the Rama of Valmiki’s poetic imagination.  In this state, the previous experience existing in the mind of the audience as impressions work up independently in association with the suggestion of dramatic performance.  These roused impressions produce new joys and new pains.  This is called universalization of poetic art.

Universalization of poetic art is of two kinds.  First, the aesthetic composition presents before our minds an aesthetic situation and an emotion, free from its local character.  Secondly, the expression of this artistic enlightenment has a universal character in its manifestation in different minds.  In the next stage this presented whole, becomes mingled with various types of subconscious and unconscious feelings which are lying dormant in the minds of various people.  It is therefore called transcendental, i.e. alaukika or camatkara.

The work camatakara is used in different senses;

1.       To denote the special aesthetic attitude of the mind produced by the co-mingling of the universal artisitic situation and the stirred up emotion-motive complexes.

2.       To denote the aesthetic pleasure arising out of it.

3.       To denote the bodily manifestation of such an enjoyment.

4.       To denote the special mental function by which the whole thing is enjoyed.

Dhvani – Anandvardhana (in Dhvanyaloka) extends the scope of rasa to poetry by combining rasa with his Dhvani theory.  Dhvani and rasa are not conflicting concepts.  While dhvani is the technique of expression, rasa stands for the ultimate effect of poetry.

Anandavardhana (820–890) was the author of Dhvanyaloka, a work articulating the philosophy of "aesthetic suggestion". The philosopher Abhinavagupta wrote an important commentary on it.

Anandavardhana is credited with creating the dhvani theory. He wrote of dhvani (meaning sound, or resonance) in regard to the "soul of poetry. "When the poet writes," said Anandavardhana, "he creates a resonant field of emotions." To understand the poetry, the reader or hearer must be on the same "wavelength." The method requires sensitivity on the parts of the writer and the reader.

The literal meaning of Dhvani is 'reverberation' or 'suggestion'. This is an aesthetic concept that occupies an important place in Indian poetic theory, hence in Sanskrit theatre. Anandavardhana in ninth century was the first exponent of the Dhvani school of literary criticism, further elaborated by Abhinavagupta in 950-1025, whose Locana or 'Eye' is a commentary on Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka or 'Light on Dhvani'.

According to Dhvani theory, the content of a good poem may be divided in two parts. One is directly expressed through the power of denotation of the words, and may include the meaning hinted at by their power of connotation or lakshana. The other, taken to be the soul of poetry, is the unexpressed or suggested meaning i.e. vyangya, i.e. 'revealed', or dhvani, sometimes linked with the denotative and connotative meanings of the words.

Tradition delineates three types of dhvani. When the expressive words offer their direct meaning and, in turn, suggest some other, charming, matter (vastu) or idea, it is called vastudhvani. For instance, 'the sun has set' may mean to a peasant that it is time to stop tilling the field, whereas for a housewife it may suggest, 'It is time to cook the food.' When in addition to the expressed meaning, some striking and embellished meaning is suggested, it becomes alamkara (ornamental) dhvani, understood as different from the expressed figure of speech. And when a poet, by carefully choosing his words, makes them convey far more than their bare meanings and so induces a whole series of emotions it creates rasadidhvani.

The theory of Dhvani in the field of rhetorics and asthetics being put forward by Ānandavardhana through his monumental work Dhvanyāloka, is a contribution of Sanskrit to the universal poetic asthetic studies. The theme of Indian interpretation of asthetics inherited through the Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata till many authentic works got established in different centuries by different authors. Ānandavardhana is one of such authors who wanted to establish the theory of asthetics called the rasa theory by following the unchallenged Bharata definition of: vibhāvānubhāvavybhicārisamyogād rasaniṣpattiḥ to analyze the works of Valmīki and Vyāsa etc.

 Ānandavardhana says:

dhvaneḥ svarūpaṃ sakalasatkavikāvyopaniṣadbhūtam

atiramaṇīyam aṇīyasībhirapi cirantanakāvyalakṣaṇavidhāyināṃ

buddhibhir anunmīlitapūrvam,

atha ca rāmāyaṇamahābhārataprabhṛtini

lakṣye sarvatra prasiddhavyavahāraṃ

lakṣayatāṃ sahṛdayānām

ānando manasi labhatāṃ pratiṣṭhāmiti prakāśyate.

(For the nature of this dhvani which is the secret of all good poets' poetry, which despite its extraordinary beauty has not been opened to view by the subtle minds of the ancient makers of definition of the poetry, which moreover, is clearly seen to be at work in such great poems as the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata will here be revealed so that the bliss in the heart of sensitive readers on their noticing it in the object of their attention, amy take firm hold in their hearts.).